The Ignatianum Philosophical Yearbook

Introduction

Gellért E. Marton, Andrzej Wadas — Tue, 30 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This issue of the Ignatianum Philosophical Yearbook is divided into two parts. The first part consists of scholarly articles devoted to Polish– Hungarian relations examined in the context of the rivalry between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans, from the Middle Ages to the early modern period. The second part includes a Varia section, bringing together contributions on diverse topics, as well as a reviews section devoted to recent scholarly publications.

Among the issues addressed in this volume, particular attention is given to research developed within the framework of academic cooperation between the scholarly communities of Kraków and Szeged. This cooperation has a long-standing tradition, shaped by successive generations of researchers, and in recent years has been continued through new scholarly and publishing initiatives. The editors express their conviction that the texts presented in this volume constitute a valuable contribution to research on the history of Central Europe and on the political and cultural interconnections of the region from the Middle Ages to the early modern era.

Wstęp

Gellért E. Marton, Andrzej Wadas — Tue, 30 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Niniejszy numer Rocznika Filozoficznego Ignatianum został podzielony na dwie części. Pierwsza obejmuje artykuły naukowe poświęcone relacjom polsko-węgierskim w kontekście rywalizacji Habsburgów i Osmanów, od średniowiecza po epokę nowożytną. Druga część zawiera dział Varia, gromadzący teksty o zróżnicowanej tematyce, oraz dział recenzji, poświęcony najnowszym publikacjom naukowym.

Wśród zagadnień podejmowanych w niniejszym tomie ważne miejsce zajmuje problematyka rozwijana w ramach współpracy badawczej środowisk akademickich Krakowa i Segedyna. Ma ona długą tradycję, przekazywaną przez kolejne pokolenia badaczy, oraz znajduje kontynuację w ostatnich latach dzięki podejmowanym inicjatywom naukowym i wydawniczym. Redakcja wyraża przekonanie, że prezentowane teksty stanowią wartościowy wkład w badania nad dziejami Europy Środkowej oraz nad powiązaniami politycznymi i kulturowymi regionu w okresie od średniowiecza po czasy nowożytne.

Continuity and Change from the Mongol Empire to the Crimean Khanate

Csaba Göncöl — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article examines the evolution of the initial protocol used in Mongol imperial decrees, tracing its development from the thirteenth century Mongol Empire throughout the period of Golden Horde to the Crimean Khanate. It highlights the continuity of Genghisid diplomatic and bureaucratic traditions– particularly the use of the formula sözüm/sözümüz ‘my/ our word’– that despite religious and cultural transformations throughout several centuries. Furthermore, the article demonstrates how this early Mongol tradition was adapted into a distinctive Crimean Tatar corroborating sign (tuġra) under the political and cultural influence of the Ottoman Empire.

Faith and Politics

Yanina Ryier — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This study examines the complex narrative image of pagans in paganChristian military alliances within medieval chronicle discourse, using the Polish–Lithuanian cooperation following the marriage of Casimir, son of Władysław Łokietek, and Anna, daughter of Gediminas, as a starting point. The analysis focuses on Wigand of Marburg’s account of the 1330 Polish–Lithuanian-Hungarian campaign in the Dobrzyń and Chełmno lands, while also tracing similar patterns in narrative descriptions of other Polish–Lithuanian joint campaigns, such as the 1326 expedition to Brandenburg, as reflected in German chronicles. The findings show that although alliances between Christians and pagans were often strategically necessary and acknowledged in narrative sources, they were typically portrayed with ambivalence and criticism. Importantly, such portrayals are not limited to the Latin narrative tradition but also appear in Orthodox sources (as demonstrated through the example of Cuman participation in Rus’ campaigns), reflecting a broader Christian conception of the religious Other. Even as military allies, pagans are not fully assimilated into the discursive category of the Self – that is, Christians. Instead, they continue to be framed – perhaps instinctively – as potential aggressors, requiring constant vigilance. Thus, even in moments of cooperation, the alliance with pagans such as the Lithuanians remains uneasy and conditional, marked by persistent distrust.

What Did His Contemporaries Think of King Louis the Great?

Stanisław A. Sroka — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

King Louis the Great (1342–1382) is regarded as one of the greatest rulers in Hungarian history. He is the only Hungarian king to have been honoured with this epithet. The aim of this article is to analyze the sources that offer a characterization of the king. A prominent example is a hymn of praise to Louis, written around 1356 by Peter Suchenwirt, an Austrian poet and herald. His work provides a detailed account of Louis’s military campaigns, along with a brief description of each. His biographer, John of Küküllő, made many interesting observations about Louis in his work entitled Chronicon de Ludovico rege. We learn about the king’s passion for astrology, his linguistic abilities (he was said to have spoken German, Italian, and Latin fluently), and finally, the king’s physical appearance. Surviving portraits of the ruler confirm the chronicler’s opinion. Finally, some Italian chronicles and the opinions about King Louis contained therein, including those of anecdotal nature, are also discussed.

On the Beginnings of Diplomatic Relations with Persia in the Fifteenth Century in the Context of Resistance to the Growing Power of the Ottoman Empire:

Łukasz Burkiewicz — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The reign of Tīmūr (c. 1370–1405), particularly from the late 1390s, marked a period of intensified contact between Western Europe and his vast empire. Several factors drove these diplomatic exchanges between the West and Tīmūr, one of which was their shared interest in curbing the rising power of the Ottoman state. Among Tīmūr’s envoys was the Dominican friar John, probably Italian or born into an Italian family settled in Kastamonu in Paphlagonia on the Black Sea. From around 1390 he served as bishop of Nakhchivān and was likely already in contact with Tīmūr at that time. In 1398–1399 he undertook his first mission to the West, recorded in the sources, receiving in Rome his appointment as Archbishop of Sulṭāniyya in July 1398. On his next mission, beginning in 1402, he remained in Europe until at least 1412, presenting himself as an envoy of Tīmūr and his son Mīrān Shāh and acting as an informant on the precarious state of the missions in Persia and further east. At the same time, he sought to win cooperation with the Tīmūrids by cultivating a favourable image of them among Western rulers. John was styled by papal cardinals Archiepiscopus Soltaniensis seu Orientis (“Archbishop of Sulṭāniyya or of the East”), and from 1410 also served as administrator of the archidioecesis Cambaliensis (Peking). A particularly noteworthy episode of his European sojourn was his visit to the Teutonic Order’s court in Malbork in 1407. Referred to by the Teutonic Knights as the bischofe von Persya (“bishop of Persia”) and titled by Grand Master Konrad von Jungingen Soltaniensis sive totius Orientis primas (“Archbishop of Sulṭāniyya or primate of the whole East”), he likely persuaded the Grand Master to issue a new series of letters – to the King of Cyprus (styled also as ruler of Armenia), to Timur and Mīrān Shāh, to the Byzantine emperor, and to the legendary Prester John of Ethiopia or Abkhazia – in support of his mission in Europe. Archbishop John saw himself both as a missionary and as an instrument of anti-Ottoman policy, mediating in the creation of an alliance between Tīmūr and the rulers of Western Europe, with the aim of strengthening the position of Christianity in Persia and more broadly in Asia. His trace disappears after 1412, when he was last recorded in Lviv. There is also a hypothesis that Archbishop John was a forger and that at least some of the letters addressed to Western European rulers – purportedly written by Tīmūr himself – were in fact fabrications composed by the Dominican friar. Exploiting the confusion that followed the Battle of Ankara and the general ignorance of Europeans regarding the East, he allegedly sought to present himself as Tīmūr’s trusted adviser, thereby constructing the myth of a “Christian Tīmūr”. In doing so, he gained access to European courts and secured financial support for his activities. The trail of Archbishop John ends in 1412 in Lviv, from where he never returned to Persia, perhaps fearing exposure at the courts of Tīmūr’s and Mīrān Shāh’s successors.

Hieronym Łaski and a Name Day Festivities in the Castle of Csaba?

Halmágyi Miklós — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Békés County lies far from Poland, yet several connections existed between these regions in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In January 1444 King Władysław Warneńczyk of the Jagiełło dynasty granted an estate to a nobleman from Békés County. Hungarians from the southern part of the Great Plain studied in Poland, and Polish warriors appeared in the region of the castle of Gyula in 1529. It is also possible that Hieronym Łaski, the well-known Polish politician in the service of King John Szapolyai, was invited to the little castle of Csaba – present-day Békéscsaba. A letter issued by King Ferdinand in 1531 provides additional insight into the negotiation between King John and King Ferdinand, conducted with the mediation of King Sigismund of Poland in that year. The original of this letter is preserved in Kassa, while a contemporary copy survives in Békéscsaba. King Sigismund’s intercession in the matter of Gyula is a further chapter in the Polish–Brandenburg–Hungarian relations.

Jagiellonian Monarchies in the Apostolic Chancellery.

Adam Zapała — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The article presents a new method for searching and publishing materials preserved in the registers of the Apostolic Chancery at the turn of the sixteenth and seventeenth century. The approach is based on the systematic use of archival indexes and digital tools. Traditional methods of working with papal sources are extremely time-consuming and inefficient. Although research in the Vatican Archives has been carried out for almost 150 years, there is still a lack of modern archival aids and digital editions that would enable effective use of these resources for studies on the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Using the example of Polish affairs from the pontificates of Sixtus IV, Innocent VIII, and Alexander VI, the author demonstrates how historical indexes to the Registra Lateranensia and Registra Vaticana, complemented by targeted searches in the Registra Supplicationum, can be effectively employed to identify and catalogue the preserved source material. The proposed procedure made it possible to locate more than one thousand entries relating to Poland within a single month—a result that, under traditional research conditions, would require decades of work. A comparative analysis with the Repertorium Germanicum confirmed the high effectiveness of the method, which allowed for the identification of over 85 percent of the bulls preserved in the registers. The article also proposes a model for digital publication of the collected data in accordance with the FAIR and Linked Open Data (LOD) standards. This model enables the gradual release of material—from basic metadata to in-depth analyses of individual documents—and the integration of multiple research projects. In doing so, it enhances scholarly communication and increases research efficiency. Although the method has been tested on Polish material, it has a universal character and can be applied to other regions of Europe.

The Activities of Hungarians in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Service of Stephen Báthory (1576–1586)

Dominik Kadzik — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

In most existing studies on the reign of Stephen Báthory in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth, the role of Hungarians has usually been marginalized. When their activities were considered at all, they were typically limited to the military campaigns against Moscow between 1579 and 1582. This issue seems significant from the perspective of the functioning of the immediate entourage of those elected monarchs in the Commonwealth, who were foreigners. To what extent could such rulers, unfamiliar with Polish political culture, make use of their compatriots in their new homeland despite clear formal-legal constraints? The main aim of this article is to present the activities of Báthory’s compatriots in the Polish-Lithuanian state throughout his entire reign, demonstrating that Hungarians were not merely occasional members of the monarch’s closest circle but rather maintained a constant presence. Only those compatriots of King Stephen who performed various tasks directly assigned by the monarch or carried out in his interest were taken into account, with a primary focus on military, political-dynastic, and court-related aspects. Each of these aspects was served by Hungarians throughout King Stephen’s entire reign, although the group of individuals executing the monarch’s particular orders was subject to constant fluctuations. This testified to the steady influx of the monarch’s compatriots into the Commonwealth and, consequently, served as evidence of strengthened relations with Transylvania. In total, several thousand of Báthory’s compatriots served in his immediate entourage over the course of his reign. Among the court personnel alone, nearly five hundred people were employed over the period of just under eleven years. Meanwhile, in military formations centered around the royal court, such as Hungarian infantry and cavalry, up to two thousand people served simultaneously. Over the years, their numbers underwent constant changes, so the total number of Hungarians in military service was even greater. The size of this group best illustrates the scale of Báthory’s compatriots’ involvement in Polish affairs.

Polish–Hungarian Tensions During the Kraków Negotiations on the Holy League (1596)

Janusz Smołucha — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article examines the convocation and course of the Kraków negotiations on the formation of the Holy League in 1596, with particular attention to papal sources, above all the diplomatic correspondence of Cardinal Enrico Caetani, the papal legate. Convened during the Third Austro–Turkish War (in Hungarian historiography called the Fifteen Years War, 1591/1593–1606), the congress was part of the Holy See’s broader effort to construct a wide-ranging anti-Ottoman coalition embracing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Habsburg Empire, Spain, Venice, and Transylvania. Caetani’s central mission was to reconcile Poland and the Empire, divided primarily by disputes over the status of Moldavia and Wallachia. Yet the proceedings also exposed deeper Polish–Hungarian and Polish–Transylvanian frictions, rooted in earlier border conflicts and sharpened by the dynastic interests of the Habsburgs. Although Poland faced the threat of Tatar incursions, it resisted immediate war with the Ottomans, instead prioritizing the maintenance of peace and control of Black Sea trade routes. Caetani’s correspondence illuminates both the inner workings of the talks and his unsuccessful attempts to secure the meaningful participation of Sigismund Báthory. The negotiations ultimately collapsed: the parties disagreed over prior treaties, the conduct and aims of the war, and the projected duration of the league, while the deputies present lacked authority to commit to binding terms. Even so, Caetani persisted in his mission, convinced that the Commonwealth could yet serve as a cornerstone of Europe’s defense against Ottoman expansion.

Stephen Bockai’s Early Relations with Poland (1583–1594)

Krisztina Juhász — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Stephen Bocskai (1557–1606), Prince of Transylvania, had a social network of Polish relations spanning decades, which was particularly extensive during the period of the revolt (1604–1606). In this study, I focus on the early phase of this extensive social network, up to 1594. These relations can be demonstrated from 1583, and their development is closely linked to his kinship with the Báthory family, the ruling family of Transylvania. After the marriage of Bocskai’s niece, Christina Báthory, to the Polish chancellor and great hetman Jan Zamoyski, Bocskai himself became related to and began corresponding with a leading figure in Polish political life. Stephen Bocskai’s diplomatic missions to Poland in 1588 and 1590, which also involved the Báthory family and its affairs, helped him to personally strengthen and expand his Polish relations with Zamoyski and others. In my study, I use two instructions and other relevant sources to reconstruct the purposes and circumstances of these journeys, as well as Bocskai’s role and activities. For my research, in addition to using the relevant literature and source publications, I collected unpublished sources from the Cathedral Library of Esztergom, the Manuscript Archives of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and the National Archives of Hungary.

The Election of Stephen Báthory as King of Poland and His Peace Treaty with the Sultan Murad III (1577) from an Ottoman Perspective

Sándor Papp — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The second Polish interregnum gave Stephen Báthory, voivode of Transylvania, an opportunity to seek the Polish throne for himself. When he entered the contest, he appeared to be one of the least likely candidates, and would have remained so had the Ottoman Empire not recognized the advantages of supporting him. Sultan Murad III and Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, who also directed Ottoman foreign affairs, exerted significant diplomatic and, at times, military pressure on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the same time, they did everything in their power to persuade Báthory’s much stronger and more promising opponent, the Habsburg emperor, to accept the choice made by the Polish estates. Consequently, one of Báthory’s first major foreign policy initiatives was to stabilize relations between Poland and the Ottoman Empire and to conclude a peace treaty that served as a model for the later Polish–Ottoman treaties and as an example for the first Anglo–Ottoman trade agreement.

From the Dniester to the Bosphorus

Hubert Chlebik — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article examines how early modern Polish diplomats perceived and interpreted the landscapes they crossed on their way to Constantinople. Drawing on travel diaries and diplomatic reports, it explores how natural and cultural space functioned not merely as a backdrop but as an active participant in diplomatic experience. The author distinguishes several key roles of the landscape: as a stage for ceremony, where hills, bridges, and borders became tools of symbolic hierarchy and political communication; as a witness to history, where terrain preserved the memory of past battles and deaths, including the 1621 Battle of Khotyn and the site of Hetman Żółkiewski’s fall, marked by his monument; as a realm of nature, alternately admired for its richness and feared for its wildness; and finally as a source of danger, where swollen rivers, treacherous Balkan passes, and even earthquakes threatened travelers.

Relations between the Transylvanian Prince György II Rákóczi and the Political Elite of the Kingdom of Hungary (1657–1658)

János Szabados — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

In this paper, I examine the relations between Prince György II Rákóczi and the political elite of the Kingdom of Hungary in the period following the Transylvanian prince’s campaign in Poland (1657). I briefly describe the operation of the court apparatus responsible for eastern affairs and the activities of the principal Hungarian officeholders – the palatine, the archbishop of Esztergom, the judge royal, and the chancellor – together with the dynamics of their correspondence with Rákóczi in light of these events. To support this investigation, I have developed a database containing information from published sources and archival documents. Combining qualitative aspects (the intentions and interests of the Hungarian dignitaries) with quantitative analysis, the study offers answers to questions such as why the palatine and the archbishop of Esztergom did not correspond for months and through which intermediaries the correspondence was conducted. The analysis also sheds light on the political motivations that led Hungarian dignitaries either to support the prince or, at times, to oppose his policies.

The Effects of the “Eastern European Thirty Years’ War” (1654–1686) on the Ukrainian regions

Beáta Varga — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

According to the decision of the Pereiaslav Rada of 1654, Ukraine voluntarily entered into union with Russia, which triggered the outbreak of the “Eastern European Thirty Years’ War” (1654–1686) between Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth for control over Ukrainian territory. From 1657 onward, following the death of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian hetmans struggled for power, often supported by Polish, Ottoman, and Russian intervention. In Ukrainian historiography, this tragic period is known as the “Ruin.” The Treaty of Andrusovo of 1667 officially divided the Ukrainian lands along the Dnieper: Left-Bank Ukraine remained under Romanov rule, while Right–Bank returned to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. News of division shocked the Cossack starshyna, and the Russian government was accused of a grave betrayal of the Pereiaslav Agreement. The Treaty of Andrusovo, later reaffirmed as the “Eternal Peace” in 1686, restored Right-Bank Ukraine – except for Kyiv – to Poland, where it remained – though not without conflict or dispute – until the Second Partition of Poland in 1793. The incorporation of Ukrainian regions into different political states and cultural spheres contributed to long-term divergences in their historical development.

A Window of Opportunity

Andrzej Wadas — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This paper examines the relationship between international power politics and the strategy of the Jesuit Order in both local and global contexts, focusing on the period from 1685 to 1704. It argues that during these years a distinct window of opportunity emerged in which the Jesuit Order, operating amid limited and often fragmented coordination with the Holy See, and benefiting from short-term and asymmetrical support from major European powers – notably France, the Habsburg Monarchy, the Polish– Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russia – sought to develop a missionary strategy centred on the establishment of a land route linking Europe with China. While only some of these powers were formally associated through the Holy League, their overlapping geopolitical interests temporarily converged with Jesuit ambitions. Central to this strategy were Russia’s increasing openness to the West and the favourable disposition of the Kangxi Emperor towards Christianity, which together appeared to create unprecedented conditions for sustained transcontinental engagement between China and Europe.

The Practices of Editing in Ottoman Incunabula

Szonja Emese Schmidt — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The rise of Turkish printing is closely connected both to the Ottoman manuscript traditions and to the centuries-old practices of European printing. In this article, I outline the main features of the first Turkish incunabula in the light of Ibrahim Müteferrika’s editorial practices. In addition to his two own works (Usûl ül-hikem fî nizâm ül-ümem, Fuyûzât-ı miknatisîye), I examine the corrections and additions he made to several other books printed in his press. Using manuscripts associated with Ibrahim Müteferrika in the Süleymaniye Library and the Raşid Efendi Library in Kayseri, as well as a Latin account of the Müteferrika Press titled Origo et Principium Typographiae Ottomanicae, which offers additional information about the sources employed for particular prints, I trace the background of his own writings, translations and the editions he substantially revised. These manuscript translations and other excerpts provide a more complete picture of Ibrahim Müteferrika’s activities as an author in the Ottoman era, as well as of his education and scholarly interests.

Encounters in the Habsburg Lands

Katarzyna Kuras — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article examines two eighteenth-century Polish travel accounts describing journeys through the Habsburg-ruled Kingdom of Hungary: the military account by Ignacy Zawisza from 1715 and the unpublished manuscript by Józef Aleksander Jabłonowski from 1762. The aim of the article is to highlight how Polish travellers perceived space, society, and history in the region, depending on the context of their journey as well as their social position and intellectual ambitions. The primary sources are two travel narratives – Zawisza’s printed and concise account, based on his military campaign experience, and Jabłonowski’s much more extensive manuscript, combining topographical observations with historical, genealogical, and heraldic reflections. The article also draws on relevant scholarship on eighteenth-century travel culture, Polish-Hungarian relations, and the representation of early modern elites. Both narratives are analysed comparatively, using a cultural perspective that makes it possible to reveal the cognitive, representational, and identity-building functions of travel writing in eighteenth-century noble culture. Special attention is paid to narrative construction and to the tension between factual description and the symbolic dimension of the travel accounts. The article argues that travel through Hungary served not only practical and cognitive purposes for the Polish nobility, but also played a role in self-representation and the shaping of identity. While Zawisza’s account aimed to document participation in a Habsburg-led military campaign, Jabłonowski’s manuscript was a conscious attempt at self-fashioning and presenting himself as a member of European intellectual networks. The article thus demonstrates how travel could serve as a medium for asserting status and participating in the transnational culture of early modern Europe.

Towards a Comparative Study of Polish and Hungarian Witchcraft Persecutions

Gergely Brandl — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article explores the possibility of a legal-historical comparison of Polish and Hungarian witchcraft trials. It begins by outlining the historiographical background, tracing developments since the so-called anthropological turn in witchcraft studies. It then presents the most significant statistical data pertaining to the regions of both countries. Finally, it proposes a microhistorical framework through a discussion of general legal issues. The paper concludes that a straightforward regional or subregional comparison is not feasible; instead, thematic, contemporaneous, trial-by-trial comparisons can be conducted by building on individual cases and examining parallel court practices.

The Polish Network of an Ottoman Pasha

Mariusz Kaczka — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article explores the cross-border networks that emerged along the Ottoman–Polish border in the early eighteenth century through the case of Ilyash Kolchak Pasha and his Polish secretary, Piotr Pawłowski. Drawing on a unique corpus of Polish-language correspondence preserved in Russian and Ukrainian archives, it reconstructs how Hotin functioned not merely as a fortress but as a logistical, postal, and diplomatic hub. Kolchak – a Bosnian-born Ottoman border governor fluent in Polish – used his position and linguistic skills to cultivate a dense web of relationships with nobles, clergy, soldiers, diplomats, and merchants on both sides of the border. As his secretary, translator, and intermediary, Pawłowski operated his own smaller but vital network of nobles, Tatars, Armenians, Hungarians, and diplomats, enabling everyday exchanges of letters, goods, and intelligence. The article argues that this border was not a rigid civilizational line but a corridor of brokerage, social infrastructure, and mutual dependence. It challenges state-centric and Huntingtonian civilizational binaries by foregrounding intermediaries and their networks as constitutive forces in early modern borderlands. The Ottoman–Polish border emerges as a zone of structural entanglement, where imperial systems overlapped, and trans-imperial actors like Kolchak and Pawłowski shaped political, commercial, and cultural exchange.

Sacerdotalisation

Stanisław Witecki — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The Council of Trent expected priests to dutifully perform their professional obligations and to shine as examples of Christian life. Although this new ideal was treated as coherent and holistic by both Catholic reformers and historians, the article proposes to analyse it as two separate processes: clerical professionalisation and sacerdotalisation, which represent, respectively, the attempts to modify professional and private lives. Such a distinction not only sheds light on situations when both post-Tridentine goals were not fully aligned but also draws attention to the specificity of Catholic priests, who were expected to change their private lives more than other professional groups. The article offers a preliminary account of the sacerdotalisation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1795. In an attempt to create an anthropological portrait, it is mostly based on egodocuments, with special attention given to the writings of Kazimierz Dziuliński, a parish priest in Słaboszów within the diocese of Kraków from 1676 to 1701. An argument is proposed that, by the final decades of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the private lives of priests had come to play a unifying rather than dividing role. Clergy were hierarchically divided and maintained close relationships with laymen according to their rank as well as shared with relative groups many everyday practices, especially feasting and trading. However, the belief in the power of ordination, seminary education, social influence and peer control fostered enough commonality for priests to feel and be perceived as members of a distinguished and relatively elevated group. Generally, at the end of the eighteenth century, priests kept celibacy, exhibited specific nonverbal communication, prayed the breviary, wore clerical garb, and usually read religious literature.

Constructing a Hybrid Memoryscape Hungarian Topography of Memory in Habsburg Galicia During the First World War

Kamil Ruszała — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article examines the cultural and spatial practices of commemorating Hungarian soldiers in Galicia during the First World War, focusing on the Battle of Łapanów–Limanowa (2–12 December 1914) and two competing models of remembrance within the Habsburg Monarchy: national and imperial ones. The battle, a rare military success on the Eastern Front, was quickly appropriated by Hungarian propaganda and turned into a symbol of heroism, sacrifice, and national identity. Commemoration began during the war itself, unfolding in two parallel frameworks: the Hungarian national narrative, glorifying and heroizing the soldiers, and the imperial narrative, which sought to sacralize the fallen within a supranational vision of dynastic unity. The first part analyzes Hungarian wartime narratives produced by correspondents and a military physician, showing how their accounts framed the battle as an act of sacrifice and brotherhood, transforming trauma into national myth. The second part focuses on imperial commemorative practices, particularly the construction of the war cemetery on Jabłoniec Hill near Limanowa, designed under Habsburg administration. Although an imperial initiative, the cemetery emphasized the role of Hungarian soldiers, symbolically highlighting their contribution to defending the monarchy. These practices aimed to strengthen imperial cohesion by honoring all constituent peoples and reinforcing loyalty to Vienna. Former battlefields thus became contested memoryscapes where imperial and national narratives intersected.

How to Showcase Design?

Anna Kostrzyńska-Miłosz — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The aim of the article is to analyse and present post-war furniture exhibitions organized between 1945 and 1970. This overview makes it possible to identify and discuss several key exhibition trends that developed during the period of Poland’s post-war reconstruction and modernization. The primary sources for this research include press articles published both in professional journals and popular magazines, as well as catalogues and documentation accompanying the exhibitions. The survey of exhibitions is arranged chronologically, which allows for tracing the evolution of furniture presentation methods and the changing aesthetic and functional concepts. The conducted research enabled the identification of several exhibition models.The first model can be described as traditional—it involved arranging interior displays within museum spaces that resembled fragments of apartments or rooms of standard dimensions. Individual pieces of furniture were also frequently exhibited, supplemented with mock-ups, design drawings, and technical boards, allowing visitors to better understand the process of their creation.The second model, rooted in the 1930s, consisted of furnishing real residential interiors in newly constructed buildings. Such exhibitions aimed to demonstrate the practical application of modern furniture and the principles of rational design in everyday life. A new phenomenon that emerged after 1945 was the use of exhibitions as both educational and propagandistic tools. Organizers sought to shape public taste, promote functional and aesthetically coherent arrangements for small living spaces, and encourage the use of furniture that symbolized progress and modernity. However, the analysis shows that despite ambitious ideological and design assumptions, the realization of these concepts faced significant limitations. In the context of chronic shortages of goods and difficulties in industrial furniture production, the ideals of modern and functional interior furnishing often remained confined to the realm of exhibition visions rather than everyday reality.

Design as a Diversified Non-Verbal Message in Contemporary Films and TV Series

Anna Wiśnicka — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The paper provides an introductory overview to explain and structure the system of visual and cultural messages conveyed by design in contemporary films and television series. The various elements of set design constitute a source of subliminal information for the viewer of the picture, which connotes contents deeply rooted in history and pop culture. Design, historically a sensitive barometer of socio-cultural change, is an excellent carrier of content that non-verbally supplements the plot with locative and temporal messages as well as the cultural belonging and status of the characters. It is also a carrier of values deeply rooted in collective memory, closely linked to the culture of the time and place in which the design pieces were created. The paper uses examples of films and series made after the 2000s to illustrate the widely diversified spectrum of the phenomenon, allowing for a typologisation of the content that design connotes in cinematography.

A Unique Object in Mass Production

Michał Myśliński — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Since around 2000, there has been a clearly noticeable interest in the design and production of Polish jewelry after 1945, popularly called jewelry of the Polish People’s Republic and treated as historic and collector’s items. This “research area” is still being explored in the context of Polish art, as evidenced by the growing number of publications – articles, monographs and exhibition catalogues. The catalogues of exhibitions organised after 2000, accompanying the exhibitions of artefacts, can be considered a kind of summary of the stages of research on jewellery of the Polish People’s Republic, but also as opening new paths of interpretation and analysis. It must be acknowledged, however, that this is still an early stage, and the research is multi-layered, beginning with findings regarding the scale of production, continuing through the findings of jewelry designers, and concluding with attempted syntheses regarding the development of jewelry design in the communist era. The text was prepared using critical analysis of scientific texts and analysis of factual data.

“Prima del Machiavelli”

Stefan Bielański — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The aim of this article is to assess, in the broader context of the history of Italian states during the Renaissance, the significance that Benedetto Croce attached to Machiavelli’s historical and political thought in the context of his historical reflections on the history of Italian states during the Renaissance, focusing on the relations between these states and the Spanish monarchy of the time. In this context, it is necessary to compare Croce’s theses with the opinions expressed by the Florentine Secretary (taken from The Prince and The History of Florence), as well as those of Francesco Guicciardini, the 16th-century author The History of Italy. For the purposes of this article, Polish and Italian literature on the subject relating to the history of Italy at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries has been used, with particular emphasis on the history of the Kingdom of Naples and, in this context, the historical and political thought of Niccolò Machiavelli. Using research methods from the field of Italian historiography and the history of political thought in the early modern era, the analysis covers the characteristics of the history of the Kingdom of Naples during the Aragonese era in the system of Italian states in the 15th century, as well as the concept of pre-Machiavellianism in the reign of King Ferrante in the reflections of Benedetto Croce. Referring to these main research theses, it is important to emphasise their significance not only in the context of the essay Prima del Machiavelli (which is a commentary on the source publication Una difesa di Re Ferrante I di Napoli per il violato trattato di pace del 1486 col Papa (Bari, 1944), but also Croce’s work on the history of the Kingdom of Naples, Storia del Regno di Napoli (Bari, 1925). In conclusion, it can therefore be said that Benedetto Croce achieved the goals he set himself in his research on the history of Southern Italy, especially the Kingdom of Naples, including his essay Prima del Machiavelli, which is important for understanding the era of key changes in this history at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. They should also be viewed, as Croce himself wanted, from an Italian historical perspective, but at the same time in a broader context, both from the point of view of political history and literary, artistic and social history. And also in accordance with his key thesis that History is always Contemporary.

Józef Rogaliński, SJ

Anna Starościc, Stanisław Janeczek — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This paper analyses – in a broader philosophical and cultural context – the achievements of the Jesuit Józef Rogaliński (1728–1802), a teacher of mathematics and experimental physics at the Jesuit college based in Poznań. For Rogaliński’s activity the assimilation of the achievements of modern natural science is characteristic. Hence, the epistemological status of his main work, Doświadczenia skutków rzeczy pod zmysły podpadających [Experience of the effects of things falling under the senses], is analysed. As phenomenal experimentalism is favoured in Rogaliński’s work, it can be considered a manifestation of modern natural science. In accordance with the concept of longue durée, it is emphasized that philosophical categories used by Rogaliński are validated with empirical evidence. Therefore, his achievement can be treated as a manifestation of philosophia recentiorum, a typical characteristic of education in the second half of the eighteenth century, eclectically yet critically participating in the philosophical and scientific (natural) culture of the time. Rogaliński’s approach also respects the religious standards of that time, which allows us to see this form of improving modern Christian Aristotelianism as a manifestation of the Christian Enlightenment.

Friedrich August Hayek on Responsibility

Halina Šimo — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This paper examines F. A. Hayek’s views on responsibility. Its aim is to collect, analyze, and demonstrate how these views form a coherent concept consistent with his broader axiological framework. The discussion addresses, in turn, the meaning of responsibility, its subjects and objects, and the role of individual responsibility as a social value. The article shows that Hayek portrays responsibility both as an attribute of freedom and as a necessary condition for its existence. It presents arguments supporting the thesis that renouncing responsibility entails accepting the coercive management of human affairs, which inevitably leads to adverse consequences such as the denial of moral autonomy, loss of freedom, poor decision-making, and inefficiency. For Hayek, the proper subjects of responsibility are individuals, while its objects include primarily one’s own affairs and, under certain conditions, the affairs of others for whom one has voluntarily assumed concern. In his view, responsible behavior toward strangers consists in properly managing one’s own sphere of freedom and allowing others to do the same. By exercising responsibility over their own freedom, individuals—often unintentionally—contribute to the well-being of others beyond their immediate concern. In this sense, responsibility, while an individualist value, also serves as a social good. The article fills a gap in the existing literature on Hayek’s axiological thought and introduces his perspective into contemporary discussions on responsibility—one that emphasizes its close connection to freedom and its dual character as both a personal virtue and a social value, serving as a desirable alternative to state intervention in private life.

“The Courage of the Citizen” (πολιτικὴ ἀνδρεία) in Sixteenth-Century Polish Thought

Krzysztof Koehler — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The article considers the issue of the presence of the concept of civic courage (πολιτικὴ ἀνδρεία) in Old Polish political thought, particularly during the sixteenth century. This term originated in classical (Aristotle, Plato, Cicero, the Stoics) and Christian philosophy (St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas) and was discussed within the broader context of the virtue of courage. In classical thought, a distinction was introduced between martial courage and the courage of peacetime, the latter being associated with participation in political life. The article argues that classical and Christian reflections on “civic courage” were adopted in Old Polish discourse, though they were closely tied to the issue of decisionmaking processes. In the writings of Frycz Modrzewski and other thinkers (as well as in Jan Kochanowski’s Odprawa posłów greckich [The Dismissal of the Greek Envoys], this theme is intriguingly linked with the problem of individual resistance against the majority. The article also points to a crystallizing understanding of citizenship in political practice as a form of “opposition”– particularly evident in the treatise Krótkie zebranie rzeczy potrzebnych z strony wolności [A Brief Summary of Matters Essential to Liberty], as well as in reflections associated with the Sandomierz Rebellion. Finally, the question is posed whether the institution of liberum veto was ever connected with the concept of “civic courage.” The article suggests that these issues were most likely not associated with one another.

Sound as an Integral Component of Sacred Architecture

Anna Telatycka — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Apart from the visual factor, the acoustic factor is the main element that gives character to a temple as a sacred space and influences the spiritual dimension of sacred spaces. The aim of this article is to examine the relationships between acoustics and sacred architecture, as well as the role of sound in shaping the perception of liturgical interiors. The analysis includes scientific and historical literature on the acoustics of sacred buildings, examples of the application of Helmholtz resonators, and cymatic interpretations of architectural details, such as rosettes and motifs from Rosslyn Chapel. The study is based on observation of sacred spaces, analysis of documentation and literature, as well as the interpretation of cymatic and psychoacoustic phenomena. The paper demonstrates that material elements (architectural form, ornamentation) interact with immaterial elements (sound perception, atmosphere, multisensory experience), shaping the identity and functionality of sacred interiors. Sound affects both matter and space, and conscious acoustic design determines speech intelligibility, musical quality, and the spiritual reception of the space. The conclusions emphasize the necessity of integrating acoustic design with architecture and using architectural details as tools for sound modulation.

The Role of Women in Society and the Catholic Church in Pope Francis’ Media Statements, Documents, and Ecclesiastical Appointments

Magdalena Jankosz — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The aim of this article is to show the role of women in society, in Church institutions, and in pastoral ministry as seen by Pope Francis. The research questions are: did Pope Francis continue the approach of his predecessors in this regard, or did he change it? Was he innovative or conservative in his understanding of the role of women? Did he entrust women with functions subordinate to men or with decision-making functions? The research material consists of selected media statements by the Pope and excerpts from his documents, as well as those of other popes (as a point of reference). Content analysis was used as the research method. The first part of the text will show how previous popes perceived the role of women, the second will discuss the role of women in society as seen by Pope Francis, the third will discuss their position in Church institutions, and the fourth will discuss their role in pastoral ministry.

The Concept of Freedom of Speech and Its Limitations from the Perspective of Józef Tischner’s Philosophy

Sławomir Soczyński — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article attempts to conceptualise freedom of speech in the light of the philosophy of Rev. Prof. Józef Tischner, with particular emphasis on its ethical and dialogical foundations. The author points out that freedom of speech cannot be understood solely as freedom of expression, but as a responsible form of communication focused on the good of others. Against the backdrop of contemporary dilemmas related to hate speech, disinformation and social polarisation, Tischner’s concept of the ethics of dialogue becomes a proposal to build a space for communication based on truth and conscience. The article uses a hermeneutic method, interpreting Tischner’s texts in the context of the philosophy of personalism, phenomenology and contemporary media challenges.

The History of the Making of the Kraków Bakers’ Guild Banner

Marcin Gadocha — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article investigates the circumstances surrounding the establishment of the banner of the Krakow Bakers’ Guild, completed in 1912, on the basis of two principal sources: Gazeta Piekarska (The Bakers’ Gazette) and the guild’s record book. A comparative reading of the press coverage and the internal guild documentation reveals notable discrepancies between the public, official narrative and the actual process recorded in the minutes. While the newspaper presented the foundation of the banner as a unanimous and enthusiastically supported initiative, the guild protocols point to organizational difficulties, limited participation of master bakers, financial constraints, and the eventual need to obtain a loan. The study also examines the iconographic programme of the banner, designed and executed by Emilia Pydynkowska, including depictions of Our Lady of Częstochowa, St Stanislaus, and various national and guild symbols. The findings highlight the banner’s foundation process as an important source for understanding the functioning of Krakow’s craft organisations in the early twentieth century.

The Pastoral Ministry of Polish Priests in the Allied Occupation Zones after the Liberation of KL Dachau

Sławomir Kęszka — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Based on archival sources and scholarly studies, this article presents the ministry of Polish priests in the Allied occupation zones after their liberation from KL Dachau in April 1945. The material outlines the pastoral activity of Polish clergy after liberation as well as the camp ordeal of Polish Roman Catholic clergy, with particular emphasis on KL Dachau near Munich as a place of martyrdom of diocesan and religious priests, deacons, and seminarians during the Second World War. The camp was established by Heinrich Himmler in 1933 for opponents of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP). After the outbreak of the Second World War and Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, its function was expanded, and transports of prisoners from all countries occupied by Germany were sent there. It is difficult to determine the exact number of prisoners; most sources indicate that approximately 250,000 people were held in the camp. From the end of 1940, according to estimates of the Catholic Church, 2,794 priests were imprisoned there, including 1,773 from Poland, of whom 858 were murdered. One of the victims was Bishop Michał Kozal of Włocławek, who was beatified by Pope John Paul II in June 1987. In April 1945, Polish clergy entrusted themselves and all the imprisoned to the care of Saint Joseph of Kalisz. Their prayers were answered by God, and the camp and its prisoners were saved from the planned liquidation and the obliteration of all traces of its existence. The article presents the pastoral activity of Polish clergy after their deliverance from KL Dachau, attributed to Divine Providence through the intercession of Saint Joseph of Kalisz. It discusses their contribution to the reconstruction and maintenance of the parish network in Germany after the end of hostilities in 1945. On the basis of preserved source materials, memoirs, and testimonies of Polish clergy, a picture emerges of the commitment of Polish priests to organizing pastoral care in parishes within the Allied occupation zones.

Tibor Gerencsér, Marcin Grad, Miklos Mitrovits, Flaga węgierska nad Wisłą. Z dziejów placówki dyplomatycznej Węgier nad Wisłą [The Hungarian Flag on the Vistula

Tomasz Pudłocki — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The book under review, although published several years ago, has attracted little attention in Polish historiography. This is somewhat surprising, given the scarcity of publications on the history of Hungary available in Polish, and the even smaller number written from a distinctly Hungarian perspective. It is precisely in this light that Węgierska flaga nad Wisłą [The Hungarian Flag on the Vistula River] should be approached. A further contribution of the volume lies in the perspective adopted by its authors: they examine Polish–Hungarian relations through the activities of Hungary’s official diplomatic representation in Poland. While such relations cannot, of course, be analysed without reference to the broader historical context of Polish–Hungarian relations, this is not the authors’ point of departure. Instead, they focus primarily on the work and initiatives of Hungarian envoys and ambassadors to Poland between 1919–2017.

Homo politicus – homo medialis. O kulturze politycznej szlachty polskiej w XVI wieku

Iwona Pietrzkiewicz — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Kreślony w badaniach obraz obecności tekstu w kulturze dawnej ujawnia wielowątkowość i złożoność tej problematyki. Niewątpliwie jednym z badaczy, którzy konsekwentnie od lat prowadzą badania skoncentrowane na polskiej literaturze dawnej, a zwłaszcza niedocenianym i trudnym obszarze piśmiennictwa okolicznościowego, osadzonego w kontekstach polityczno-społecznych, jest Edmund Kotarski. Badacz literatury i kultury staropolskiej, publicystyki oraz tradycji retorycznej, edytor, inicjator badań nad kulturą literacką dawnego Gdańska, a w końcu twórca marynistyki staropolskiej.

Compendium of Computational Theology, vol. 1: Introducing Digital Humanities to Theology, ed. Christopher A. Nunn, Frederike van Oorschot (Heidelberg: heiBOOKS, 2024), 482 pp.

Danuta Smołucha — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Pierwszy tom Compendium of Computational Theology to pionierska próba uporządkowania pola wspólnego dla teologii i humanistyki cyfrowej. Redaktorzy tomu, Christopher A. Nunn i Frederike van Oorschot, traktują teologię obliczeniową nie jako nowy nurt doktrynalny, lecz jako obszar pracy badawczej, w którym teologowie mogą świadomie korzystać z narzędzi i metod cyfrowych. Publikacja liczy 482 strony i składa się z pięciu części obejmujących zarówno refleksję ogólną, jak i praktyczne przykłady. Zawiera rozdziały o digitalizacji źródeł, edycjach cyfrowych, analizie tekstu, obrazu, dźwięku i filmu, wizualizacji danych, zarządzaniu informacją badawczą oraz komunikacji naukowej. Zespół autorski tworzą badacze reprezentujący różne dziedziny nauki, dzięki czemu tom ma wyraźnie interdyscyplinarny charakter.

Stanisław Janeczek, Quaestiones disputatae. Z dziejów nowożytnej filozofii i kultury filozoficznej (Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL, 2024), ss. 408

Józef Bremer SJ — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Ksiądz prof. dr hab. Stanisław Janeczek prowadzi badania w obszarze historii filozofii, logiki i metodologii, które w interdyscyplinarnie profesjonalny sposób wplata w szeroki horyzont studiów nad kulturą. Z jednej strony zajmuje się wpływem kultury na rozwój filozofii i jej kierunków, a z drugiej strony analizuje oddziaływanie różnych prądów filozofii na kulturę zachodnią. Dowodem tego jest treść omawianego tomu, w którego Przedmowie autor zaznacza, że [tom ten – przyp. JB] zawiera rozważania dotyczące wybranych elementów doktryn pierwszoplanowych filozofów, które swoiście rozbłysły w dziejach nowożytnej filozofii europejskiej, a także różnie ukierunkowanej recepcji dorobku tych geniuszy ludzkiej myśli, która jest z kolei przedmiotem historii kultury filozoficznej (s. 8).