The Role of Religious Comfort and Religious Struggles in the Process of Shaping Empathy and Meaning in Life of Healthy and Sick Polish Women with COVID 19
Abstract
Objective of the study: The outbreak of the COVID‑19 pandemic has brought many new challenges related to individual and social life. The study aimed to show the relationship between religious comfort and religious struggles with empathy and meaning in life in healthy women and those who had COVID‑19. In addition, it shows the potential of religiosity in shaping aspects of mental health such as empathy and meaning in life. Method: The study involved 103 women. 54 women had and were sick with COVID‑19 and 49 did not have COVID‑19. All women were born in Poland. These tools were used: the Religious Comfort and Strain Scale (RCSS), the Empathic Sensitivity Scale (SWE), and the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ). Results: Women, both those who had COVID‑19 and those who did not, were characterized by a high level of religious comfort and a sense of the presence of meaning in life, and a search for meaning. Both groups of women show no significant relationship between religious comfort and searching for meaning in life, but reveal a strong relationship between the presence of meaning in life and the absence of such searching. In the group of healthy women, empathetic concern played a key role in mediation, while in the group of sick people, perspective‑taking played a key role. Conclusions: The knowledge gained from this research can help clinical psychologists, hospice workers, and hospice volunteers better understand patients’ needs after serious illness. It can also provide clergy with valuable knowledge for their pastoral work. Furthermore, this work can generate hypotheses useful for further research.
References
Ano, G. G., & Pargament, K. I. (2013). Predictors of spiritual struggles: An exploratory study. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 16(4), 419–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.680434
Baiano, C., Raimo, G., Zappullo, I., Marra, M., Cecere, R., Trojano, L., & Conson, M. (2022). Empathy through the Pandemic: Changes of Different Emphatic Dimensions during the COVID-19 Outbreak. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(4), 2435. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042435
Barello, S., & Graffigna, G. (2020). Caring for Health Professionals in the COVID-19 Pandemic Emergency: Toward an “Epidemic of Empathy” in Healthcare. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1431.
Bredicean, C., Tamasan, S. C., Lungeanu, D., Giurgi-Oncu, C., Anca-Livia, I. P., Panfil, Vasilian, C., Secosan, I., Ursoniu, S., & Patrascu, R. (2021). Burnout Toll on Empathy Would Mediate the Missing Professional Support in the COVID-19 Outbreak. Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, 31(14), 2231–2244. https://doi.org/10.2147/RMHP.S300578
Calandri, E., Graziano, F., Testa, S., Cattelino, E., & Begotti, T. (2019). Empathy and depression among early adolescents: the moderating role of parental support. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1447. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01447
Carli, L. L. (2020). Women, gender equality and COVID-19. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 35(7/8), 647–655. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-07-2020-0236
Chasson, M., Ben-Yaakov, O., & Taubman–Ben-Ari, O. (2021). Meaning in Life among New Mothers before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Mothers’ Marital Satisfaction and Perception of the Infant. Journal of Happiness Studies, 22(8), 3499–3512. doi: 10.1007/s10902-021-00378-1
Cohen, J. (2016). A power primer. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Methodological issues and strategies in clinical research (4th ed., pp. 279–284). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14805-018
Coppola, I., Rania, N., Parisi, R., & Lagomarsino, F. (2021). Spiritual Well-Being and Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy. Frontiers Psychiatry, 12, 626944. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.626944
Dacka, M. (2022). Poczucie sensu życia kobiet w wieku średnim w sytuacji pandemii COVID-19. Studium przypadku. Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska. Sectio J. Paedagogia-Psychologia, 35(3), 97–115. DOI 10.17951/j.2022.35.3.97-115
Daneshfar, Z., Jahanian Sadatmahalleh, S., Youseflu, S., Mahnaz Bahri Khomami, M. B., & Kazemnejad, A. (2021). Influential factors on quality of life in married Iranian women during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020: a path analysis. BMC Women’s Health, 21, 102. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-01114-2
Davis, M. H. (1980). A Multidimensional Approach to Individual Differences in Empathy. American Psychological Association.
De Jong, E. M., Ziegler, N., & Schippers, M. C. (2020). From shattered goals to meaning in life: life crafting in times of the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 577708. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577708
Decety, J., & Jackson, P. (2004). The Functional Architecture of Human Empathy. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3, 71–100.
Dores, A. R., Martins, H., Reis, A. C., & Carvalho, I. P. (2021). Empathy and Coping in Allied Health Sciences: Gender Patterns. Healthcare, 9(5), 497. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9050497
Exline, J. J., & Rose, E. D. (2013). Religious and spiritual struggles. In: Paloutzian, R. F., Park, C. L. (Eds), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality, 2nd ed. (pp. 380–398). The Guilford Press.
Exline, J. J., Grubbs, J. B., & Homolka, S. J. (2015 ). Seeing God as Cruel or Distant: Links with Divine Struggles Involving Anger, Doubt, and Fear of God’s Disapproval, The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 25(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2013.857255
Exline, J. J., Park, C. L., Smyth, J. M., & Carey, M. P. (2011). Anger toward God: social-cognitive predictors, prevalence, and links with adjustment to bereavement and cancer. Journal of personality and social psychology, 100(1), 129. DOI: 10.1037/a0021716
Fatima, H., Oyetunji, T. P., Mishra, S., Sinha, K., Olorunsogbon, O. F., Akande, O. S., Srinivasan, & Kar, S. K. (2022). Religious coping in the time of COVID-19 Pandemic in India and Nigeria: Finding of a cross-national community survey. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 68(2), 309–315. doi: 10.1177/0020764020984511
Gallagher, T. M. (2016). Rozeznawanie duchów. Św. Ignacy uczy jak świadomie kroczyć przez życie. Wydawnictwo WAM.
Głaz, S. (2020). Osobowość i religijność kobiet w kontekście ich doświadczenia osobistego i społecznego. Wydawnictwo WAM.
Głaz, S. (2022). The Relationship Between Meaning in Life, Life Satisfaction and Job Satisfaction with Religious Experience in the Life of Polish Nurses. Journal of Religion and Health, 63(3), 1710–1731. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-022-01589-3
Grossman, E. S., Hoffman, Y. S. G., Palgi, Y., & Shrira, A. (2021). COVID-19 related loneliness and sleep problems in older adults: worries and resilience as potential moderators. Personality Individual Differences, 1(168), 110371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110371.
Guadagni, V., Umilta, A., & Iaria, G. (2020). Sleep Quality, Empathy, and Mood During the Isolation Period of the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Canadian Population: Females and Women Suffered the Most. Frontiers in Global Women’s Health, 1, 585938. doi: 10.3389/fgwh.2020.585938
Hajek, A., & König, H. H. (2022). Level and correlates of empathy and altruism during the Covid-19 pandemic. Evidence from a representative survey in Germany. PLoS ONE, 17(3), e0265544. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265544
Hayes, A. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications.
Kahlon, M. K., McDonald, A. P., Aubrey, R., Clark, N., Cowley-Morillo, M., Jacobs, E. M., Mundhenk, R., Sebastian, K. R., & Tomlinson, S. (2021). Effect of Layperson-Delivered, Empathy-Focused Program of Telephone Calls on Loneliness, Depression, and Anxiety Among Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(6), 616–622. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.0113
Karnaze, M. M., Bellettiere, J., & Bloss, C. S. (2022). Association of compassion and empathy with prosocial health behaviors and attitudes in a pandemic. PLoS One, 17(7), e0271829. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271829. eCollection 2022
Kaźmierczak, M., Plopa, M., & Retowski, S. (2007). Skala wrażliwości empatycznej. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 50(1), 9–24.
Koçak, O. (2021). How Does Religious Commitment Affect Satisfaction with Life during the COVID-19 Pandemic? Examining Depression, Anxiety, and Stress as Mediators. Religions, 12(9), 701. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090701
Kossakowska, M., Kwiatek, P., & Stefaniak, T. (2013). Sens w życiu. Polska wersja kwestionariusza MLQ (Meaning in Life Questionnaire). Psychologia Jakości Życia, 12(2), 111–131.
Kotlewski, T. (2009). Uczucia w życiu duchowym. Życie Duchowe, 59, 48–55.
Kowalczyk, O., Roszkowski, K., Montane, X., Pawliszak, W., Tylkowski, B., & Bajek, A. (2020). Religion and faith perception in a pandemic of COVID-19. Journal of religion and health, 59, 2671–2677. doi: 10.1007/s10943-020-01088-3
Krok, D., Zarzycka, B., & Telka, E. (2023). Risk perception of Covid-19, religiosity, and subjective well-being in emerging adults: The mediating role of meaning-making and perceived stress. Journal of psychology and theology, 51(1), 3–18. doi: 10.1177/00916471221102550
Liu, S., Lithopoulos, A., Zhang, C., Garcia-Barrera, M., & Rhodes, R. E. (2021). Personality and perceived stress during COVID-19 pandemic: Testing the mediating role of perceived threat and efficacy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 10351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110351
Lucchetti, G., Góes, L. G., Amaral, S. G., Ganadjian, G. T., Andrade, I., de Araújo Almeida, P. O., & Manso, M. E. G. (2020). Spirituality, religiosity and the mental health consequences of social isolation during Covid-19 pandemic. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 67(6), 672–679. https://doi.org/10.1177/00207 64020 97099 6
Majercakova, A. S., & Bolekova, V. (2022). Relationships between Life Satisfaction, Happiness and Meaning in Life in Pregnancy during COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Happiness and Health, 2(2), 87–97. https://doi.org/10.47602/johah.v2i2.20
Matiz-Moya, E., Delgado Bolton, R. C., García-Gómez, E., & Vivanco, L. (2023). Empathy and Occupational Health and Well-Being in Ecuadorian Physicians Working with COVID-19 Patients: A Mixed-Method Study. Healthcare, 11(8), 1177. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11081177
Mead, G. H. (1975). Umysł, osobowość i społeczeństwo. PWN.
Mirzakhani, K., Shoorab, N. J., & Akbari, A. (2022). High-risk pregnant women’s experiences of the receiving prenatal care in COVID-19 pandemic: a qualitative study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 22(363). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-022-04676-1
Nodoushan, R. F., Alimoradi, H., & Nazar, H. (2020). Spiritual Health and Stress in Pregnant Women During the Covid-19 Pandemic. SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine, 2, 2528–2534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42399-020-00582-9
Ogan, S., Öz Soysal, F. S., & Uz Baş, A. (2022). The Meaning of Life During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Mixed Method Research. Western Anatolia Journal of Educational Sciences, 13(1), 1–26.
Pargament, K. I. (2001). The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, Research, Practice. Guilford Press.
Pfattheicher, S., Nockur, L., Böhm, R., Sassenrath, C., & Petersen, M. B. (2020). The Emotional Path to Action: Empathy Promotes Physical Distancing and Wearing of Face Masks during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Psychological Science, 31, 1363–1373.
Rababa, M., Hayajneh, A. A., & Bani-Iss, W. (2021). Association of death anxiety with spiritual well-being and religious coping in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Religion and Health, 60, 50–63. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10943- 020- 01129-x
Schnell, T., & Krampe, H. (2020). Meaning in life and self-control buffer stress in times of COVID-19: Moderating and mediating effects with regard to mental distress. Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 582352. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.582352
Sergent, K., & Stajkovic, A. D. (2020). Women’s leadership is associated with fewer deaths during the COVID-19 crisis: Quantitative and qualitative analyses of United States governors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(8), 771–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000577
So, W. W. Y., Woo, B. P. Y., & Wong, C. (2023). Gender differences in the relationships between meaning in life, mental health status and digital media use during Covid-19. BMC Public Health, 23, 1770. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16672-x
Sokhanvar, S., Shirinzadeh-Feizabadi, A., Raeiyat-Doost, F., Seyyedmoharrami, I., & Ghodrati-Torbati, A. (2023). The relationship between anxiety caused by coronavirus disease and marital satisfaction mediated by empathy and conflict resolution styles in married women. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 12(1), 369. DOI: 10.4103/jehp.jehp_846_22
Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of counseling psychology, 53(1), 80–93.
Stone, B. M. (2022). The explanatory ability of COVID-19 life changes on quality of life: A comparison of those who have had and not had COVID-19. Current Psychology, 4, 1–12. doi: 10.1007/s12144-022-03504-1
Thomas, J., & Barbato, M. (2020). Positive Religious Coping and Mental Health among Christians and Muslims in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic. Religions, 11, 498. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11100498
Thompson, R. J. (2023). The Impact of COVID-19 on Working Women with Caring Responsibilities: An Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis. Merits, 3(1), 96–114. https://doi.org/10.3390/merits3010006
Thuné‐Boyle, I. C., Stygall, J., Keshtgar, M. R., Davidson, T. I., & Newman, S. P. (2013). Religious/spiritual coping resources and their relationship with adjustment in patients newly diagnosed with breast cancer in the UK. Psycho‐Oncology, 22(3), 646–658. DOI: 10.1002/pon.3048
Unterrainer, H. F., Lewis, A. J., & Fink, A. (2014). Religious/Spiritual Well-being, personality and mental health: a review of results and conceptual issues. Journal of Religion and Health, 53, 382–392. doi: 10.1007/s10943-012-9642-5
Wielgus, A. (2020). Strapienie duchowe a depresja. In: W. Królikowski (red.), Rozeznanie duchowe (pp. 135–147). Wydawnictwo WAM.
Zarzycka, B. (2014). Struktura czynnikowa polskiej adaptacji skali pocieszenia i napięcia religijnego. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 17(4), 683–696.
Zarzycka, B. (2017). Zmagania religijne. Uwarunkowania i funkcje. Wydawnictwo KUL.
Zinnbauer, B. J., Pargament, K. I., Cole, B., Rye, M. S., Butter, E. M., Belavich, T. G., Hipp, K. M., & Scott, A. B. (1997). Religion and spirituality: Unfuzzying the fuzzy. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36, 549–564. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1387689
Copyright (c) 2026 Ignatianum University in Cracow
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
By submitting their article, the author grants Ignatianum University publishing entity the right to use the work across the following areas:
- Recording the work in paper form and on digital or magnetic media.
- Reproducing the work by any method, with no limit on editions or copies.
- Distributing the work and its copies across any medium, including for sale, lending, or rental.
- Storing the work in computer memory.
- Sharing the work via information networks, including the Internet.
- Publicly performing, exhibiting, displaying, reproducing, broadcasting, and rebroadcasting the work, as well as making it available to the public in a manner allowing access at any chosen time and place. The publisher commits to respecting the author’s personal copyright over the work.
